B.19. Identify and distinguish among verbal operants.
Verbal operants are different types of communication behaviors identified in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) that serve specific functions. These operants were outlined by B.F. Skinner to categorize various types of language and verbal behavior based on their purpose and how they are reinforced. Here’s an overview of the primary verbal operants:
1. Mand
Definition: A mand is a request or demand. It’s a form of communication where the speaker asks for something they want or need, and it’s reinforced by receiving that specific item or outcome.
Example:
• A child says “cookie” because they want a cookie, and they receive the cookie in response. The cookie serves as the reinforcement for the mand.
Purpose: Mands are used to express wants and needs, and they are reinforced by the satisfaction of those specific wants.
2. Tact
Definition: A tact is a label or comment about something in the environment. It’s a verbal behavior in which the speaker names or describes an object, action, or event that they can see, hear, feel, smell, or taste. Tacts are reinforced by social responses, such as praise or acknowledgment, rather than obtaining the item directly.
Example:
• A child sees a dog and says “dog.” The parent responds with, “Yes, that’s a dog!” The reinforcement is the social acknowledgment from the parent.
Purpose: Tacts are used to share or label sensory experiences, helping individuals describe the world around them.
3. Echoic
Definition: An echoic is a repeating of another person’s words or sounds. In echoic behavior, the speaker mimics what they hear, and it’s reinforced by social responses, such as praise or confirmation.
Example:
• A therapist says “apple,” and the child repeats “apple.” The therapist then gives the child a high-five or says “good job,” reinforcing the echoic behavior.
Purpose: Echoics are essential for language development, as they help individuals learn new words and sounds through imitation.
4. Intraverbal
Definition: An intraverbal is a verbal response that occurs in conversation or social exchanges where a person’s words are influenced by the words of others. Intraverbals do not directly refer to something present in the environment but are reinforced by the flow of the conversation.
Example:
• When someone asks, “What’s your favorite color?” the child responds, “Blue.” The conversation itself reinforces the response.
Purpose: Intraverbals facilitate social interaction and conversation skills, as they allow individuals to respond appropriately to verbal cues from others.
5. Textual
Definition: A textual response involves reading written words out loud. In this case, the written words are the stimulus, and the verbal response is the act of reading them. The reinforcement comes from the completion of the reading task or from social acknowledgment.
Example:
• A child sees the word “cat” written on paper and says “cat” aloud. The teacher might praise the child for reading, reinforcing the behavior.
Purpose: Textual behavior allows individuals to respond to written language, supporting literacy and reading comprehension.
6. Transcription
Definition: Transcription involves writing down or spelling spoken words. The spoken words are the stimulus, and the written response is the behavior. The behavior is typically reinforced by praise or feedback on the accuracy of the written response.
Example:
• A teacher says “dog,” and the student writes “dog” on paper. The teacher praises the student, reinforcing the transcription behavior.
Purpose: Transcription skills are crucial for writing, spelling, and other academic tasks that involve responding to verbal instructions through written responses.
Each verbal operant serves a different purpose and is reinforced in a unique way:
• Mands fulfill immediate needs or wants.
• Tacts label items or experiences in the environment.
• Echoics are used to mimic language for learning new words.
• Intraverbals are responses in conversational exchanges.
• Textual behavior involves reading aloud, while Transcription involves writing spoken language.
Understanding these distinctions helps BCBAs develop targeted interventions to improve communication skills, based on the specific types of verbal behavior an individual needs to strengthen.
Here are real-world scenarios where a BCBA might need to decide which verbal operant intervention to focus on to improve a client’s communication skills:
Scenario 1: Teaching a Child to Ask for Help (Mand)
Background: A young child with autism frequently becomes frustrated during play activities because they have difficulty asking for help. This frustration often leads to disruptive behaviors like crying or throwing toys. The BCBA’s goal is to teach the child to appropriately request assistance.
Intervention Choice: Mand Training
• The BCBA decides to focus on mands by teaching the child to use the phrase “help, please” when they need assistance. By doing this, the BCBA is directly addressing the child’s need to request help, using reinforcement (providing help) each time the child mands appropriately.
Outcome: By focusing on mands, the child learns to communicate their need for help instead of resorting to disruptive behavior, and the BCBA reinforces this request by immediately offering assistance.
Scenario 2: Expanding Vocabulary and Descriptive Language (Tact)
Background: A child is able to ask for items they want (e.g., food or toys) but has limited vocabulary to describe things in their environment. The child’s parents would like them to label items and describe what they see when they’re at home or in public.
Intervention Choice: Tact Training
• The BCBA decides to focus on teaching tacts by encouraging the child to label items they see. The BCBA might start with common objects in the home, such as “cup,” “ball,” or “dog,” and reinforce the child each time they accurately label an item.
Outcome: The child expands their vocabulary and gains the ability to label objects in the environment, facilitating greater communication with others.
Scenario 3: Supporting Early Language Development through Imitation (Echoic)
Background: A non-verbal child with autism is learning to communicate, and the BCBA wants to develop the child’s ability to imitate sounds and words as a foundation for language.
Intervention Choice: Echoic Training
• The BCBA decides to focus on echoic training by modeling simple sounds or words (like “ma,” “ba,” or “up”) and prompting the child to repeat them. Each time the child successfully imitates a sound, the BCBA reinforces the behavior with praise or a preferred item.
Outcome: By focusing on echoic training, the BCBA helps the child develop the ability to imitate sounds, which is essential for learning new words and building language skills.
Scenario 4: Building Social Interaction Skills (Intraverbal)
Background: A child with autism can label objects but struggles with social exchanges, such as answering questions and participating in simple conversations. The child’s teacher wants them to be able to answer questions like “What’s your name?” and “How are you?”
Intervention Choice: Intraverbal Training
• The BCBA decides to focus on intraverbal training by teaching the child to answer common questions. They might start by teaching simple responses to questions like “What’s your favorite color?” with “blue” and reinforcing the child when they answer appropriately.
Outcome: Focusing on intraverbals helps the child engage in basic conversations and answer questions, enhancing their social skills and interactions with others.
Scenario 5: Improving Literacy Skills (Textual)
Background: A school-age child with autism is learning to read. They can recognize certain words visually but have difficulty reading them aloud. The BCBA wants to support the child’s reading development.
Intervention Choice: Textual Training
• The BCBA decides to focus on textual training by providing written flashcards with simple words (like “cat,” “dog,” “sun”) and prompting the child to read them aloud. The child is reinforced with praise or a reward each time they read a word correctly.
Outcome: By focusing on textual behavior, the BCBA helps the child improve their reading skills, which supports academic progress and literacy.
Scenario 6: Enhancing Writing and Spelling Skills (Transcription)
Background: A child is working on writing skills but has difficulty spelling words they hear. The teacher wants the child to be able to write basic words correctly when given verbal prompts.
Intervention Choice: Transcription Training
• The BCBA decides to focus on transcription by saying simple words aloud (e.g., “hat,” “dog,” “car”) and prompting the child to write them. Each successful attempt is reinforced with praise or a token.
Outcome: The focus on transcription helps the child improve their ability to write and spell words based on verbal instructions, supporting academic and communication skills.
B.20. Identify the role of multiple control in verbal behavior.
Multiple control in verbal behavior refers to instances where a single verbal response is influenced by more than one variable. In other words, multiple factors—such as different types of motivating operations, antecedents, and reinforcements—combine to control a particular verbal behavior. Understanding multiple control is essential for BCBAs because it highlights how various sources of influence work together to shape communication. There are two types of multiple control in verbal behavior: convergent multiple control and divergent multiple control.
1. Convergent Multiple Control
Definition: Convergent multiple control occurs when multiple sources of stimuli or motivating operations combine to evoke a single verbal response. In these cases, different factors come together to produce one behavior.
Example:
• A child says “water” because they are thirsty (motivating operation), see a water bottle (visual stimulus), and have learned that saying “water” results in getting a drink. Here, thirst, the sight of the water bottle, and reinforcement history all converge to control the single response of saying “water.”
• A person says “thank you” after receiving help. This response is controlled by social norms (a motivating operation to be polite), the presence of the helper (a social stimulus), and past reinforcement of gratitude expressions.
Purpose: Convergent multiple control highlights how various stimuli work together to produce a single response, helping BCBAs understand the layered factors that influence verbal behavior.
2. Divergent Multiple Control
Definition: Divergent multiple control occurs when a single antecedent or motivating operation evokes multiple different verbal responses. In these cases, one controlling variable leads to various ways of responding.
Example:
• A person sees a sunset and might say “beautiful,” “amazing colors,” or “look at that.” The single stimulus (the sunset) produces multiple possible responses.
• A child who wants to play with a friend might ask, “Can we play?” or say, “Let’s play together!” or even gesture toward a toy. Here, the motivation to engage in play (the motivating operation) produces multiple different responses.
Purpose: Divergent multiple control helps BCBAs recognize that a single stimulus or motivation can lead to a range of responses, promoting flexibility in language and expression.
Role of Multiple Control in Verbal Behavior
Understanding multiple control in verbal behavior is important because it helps BCBAs:
1. Identify Complex Influences on Communication: Real-world communication often involves multiple layers of influence. By understanding convergent and divergent control, BCBAs can assess how different stimuli and motivating operations interact to shape a client’s language.
2. Design Effective Interventions: Recognizing multiple control allows BCBAs to create more comprehensive interventions. For example, by addressing both motivating operations (e.g., needs and wants) and environmental stimuli (e.g., prompts or cues), they can increase the effectiveness of communication training.
3. Promote Functional Communication: Multiple control supports teaching functional communication by addressing how different conditions can impact a child’s response. For instance, if a child’s request for help is influenced by both a motivating operation (need for assistance) and environmental cues (seeing a teacher nearby), the BCBA can structure learning to reinforce help-seeking behavior in varied contexts.
4. Enhance Generalization and Flexibility: By working with both convergent and divergent control, BCBAs can encourage clients to generalize skills across different situations and use multiple ways to communicate the same idea, building flexible and adaptive language.
5. Assess and Troubleshoot Communication Barriers: If a child struggles with communication, understanding multiple control helps BCBAs identify whether the issue lies with motivation, environmental cues, or reinforcement history. They can then address each factor to support the development of effective communication.
Examples of Multiple Control in Practice
• Teaching Requests (Mands): A BCBA might help a child learn to request a favorite toy. The mand for the toy is controlled by the motivation to play (motivating operation), the sight of the toy (stimulus), and reinforcement history. Understanding these factors helps the BCBA reinforce requests effectively and consistently.
• Building Conversational Skills (Intraverbals): When teaching conversation, a BCBA may prompt a client to respond to questions like “How was your day?” This response might be influenced by social expectations, reinforcement history, and specific verbal cues, all working together to evoke a socially appropriate answer.
• Expanding Descriptive Language (Tacts): A BCBA working on tacts might use a variety of stimuli (pictures of animals) and motivations (child’s interest in animals) to help the child describe what they see. This could lead to a single response (naming the animal) or multiple descriptive responses (like naming the animal and describing its color or sound), illustrating both convergent and divergent control.
Summary
• Convergent Multiple Control: Multiple variables come together to produce one verbal response.
• Divergent Multiple Control: One stimulus or motivation leads to a range of different verbal responses.
By understanding multiple control, BCBAs can better analyze, assess, and intervene in complex verbal behaviors, enabling clients to develop more effective and flexible communication skills.
Here’s a real-world scenario for a BCBA to implement that highlights the role of multiple control in verbal behavior:
Scenario:
Client: Javier, a 7-year-old boy with autism, receives ABA therapy to enhance his language and communication skills. Javier has limited verbal abilities and often relies on prompts or visual aids to communicate his needs.
Objective: Teach Javier to communicate his needs and emotions in context-appropriate ways, taking into account multiple sources of control that influence his verbal behavior.
Background: Javier often becomes frustrated when he can’t access his favorite toy or activity. In these situations, he may simply say “Toy” or “Outside,” which may not fully convey his intent or need. The BCBA aims to teach Javier to communicate in a more functional way, using phrases like “Can I have my toy?” or “I want to go outside,” integrating multiple forms of verbal control (e.g., the presence of the toy, Javier’s internal state of desire, and his history of responses).
Steps to Implement:
1. Set Up the Environment: Arrange sessions in a controlled setting where Javier’s favorite toys and outdoor activities are visible but out of reach.
2. Identify Multiple Sources of Control:
• Motivating Operation (MO): Javier’s desire to access a preferred item or activity, which serves as the motivation for his communication.
• Discriminative Stimulus (SD): The presence of the therapist who can grant access to the item or activity when Javier communicates his need.
• Historical Stimulus Control: Javier’s previous experiences where using phrases like “Can I have my toy?” led to reinforcement, strengthening the behavior.
3. Teach Functional Phrases:
• Modeling and Prompting: When Javier reaches or gestures towards an item, the BCBA prompts him to say, “Can I have [item]?” or “I want to go [location].”
• Fade Prompts Gradually: Gradually reduce the prompts until Javier independently uses the phrases.
4. Reinforce Specific Responses Based on Multiple Controls:
• Differential Reinforcement: Reinforce Javier’s requests only when he uses the complete phrase that integrates both his desire (MO) and the context (SD).
• Prompt Javier to Recognize Context: For example, if the toy is close by but not in his possession, prompt Javier to say, “Can I have my toy?” rather than simply “Toy.” This highlights the influence of the toy’s presence and the need to communicate effectively.
5. Generalize to Different Settings: Practice in varied settings, like the playground or home, to encourage Javier to use functional language in different contexts with multiple sources of verbal control (e.g., presence of different adults, varying items).
Outcome:
Through consistent practice and reinforcement, Javier learns to appropriately integrate multiple sources of control in his verbal behavior. He starts using more functional phrases to express his needs based on context, motivation, and previous reinforcement history.
Here’s another scenario that illustrates the role of multiple control in verbal behavior:
Scenario:
Client: Emma, a 10-year-old girl diagnosed with ADHD, is working with her BCBA to improve her ability to respond appropriately to questions in a classroom setting. Emma often responds impulsively with answers that don’t directly address the teacher’s questions, as she may latch onto specific words rather than the full context of the question.
Objective: Help Emma develop responses that take into account the teacher’s question as well as contextual cues and relevant prior knowledge, highlighting the role of multiple control in her verbal behavior.
Background: During class discussions, Emma struggles to give accurate answers to open-ended questions. For example, if the teacher asks, “What are some causes of pollution?” Emma might respond with “Pollution is bad” instead of naming specific causes. The BCBA’s goal is to help Emma understand how multiple sources of control, such as the teacher’s specific wording, her prior learning, and the visual aids in the classroom, influence her response.
Steps to Implement:
1. Identify Sources of Multiple Control:
• Teacher’s Question as an SD: The question, “What are some causes of pollution?” signals the opportunity for Emma to provide an answer listing causes.
• Visual Aids or Relevant Materials: Posters or images around the classroom that show pollution causes (e.g., cars, factories) serve as additional sources of control that Emma can draw upon.
• Historical Control: Emma’s prior lessons and knowledge about pollution will also influence her response, helping her generate answers based on what she’s previously learned.
2. Teach Emma to Focus on Multiple Cues:
• Practice Listening for Key Words: The BCBA practices with Emma on identifying the key part of a question (e.g., “causes of pollution”) to help her understand what is being asked.
• Use Visual Prompts: When the teacher asks a question, encourage Emma to look at related classroom materials or posters for guidance. For example, a picture of factory smoke may prompt her to respond with “factories cause pollution.”
• Link Past Knowledge: Remind Emma of what she learned about pollution in past lessons, reinforcing that she can draw from these experiences to help answer the question.
3. Reinforce Accurate Responses:
• Immediate Feedback: After Emma provides an answer, the BCBA gives feedback, reinforcing correct responses that take into account multiple sources of control. For example, if Emma says, “Cars cause pollution,” the BCBA or teacher might say, “Great job! You remembered what we talked about and looked at the picture.”
• Shape Responses to Focus on Key Aspects: If Emma provides a partial response, like “Pollution is bad,” prompt her to expand by asking, “What causes it?” This encourages Emma to combine her initial response with the additional context provided by the question.
4. Practice Generalization:
• Different Types of Questions: In therapy sessions, the BCBA practices with various types of questions to help Emma generalize the skill to respond based on multiple cues in different scenarios (e.g., “What are the effects of pollution?”).
• Collaborate with Teacher: The BCBA works with Emma’s teacher to ensure she has opportunities to practice this skill during actual class discussions.
Outcome:
Emma becomes more proficient in responding accurately to questions by drawing on multiple sources of control, such as the specific wording of the question, visual cues in her environment, and her previous knowledge. Over time, she becomes more confident in answering open-ended questions and demonstrates improved engagement in class.
B.21. Identify examples of processes that promote emergent relations and generative performance.
Identifying examples of processes that promote emergent relations and generative performance. This topic involves recognizing instructional strategies and behavioral processes that encourage learners to generalize and extend their skills to new contexts, leading to more flexible and adaptive behavior.
Emergent Relations
Emergent relations occur when a learner demonstrates new, untaught relationships based on previously learned ones. This is central to relational learning, where understanding of one relationship can lead to recognizing others without direct teaching.
Example 1: Stimulus Equivalence
• Explanation: Stimulus equivalence occurs when a learner shows they understand that different stimuli are related in specific ways, often without direct teaching of every possible relationship.
• Example: A teacher teaches a child that “A” is associated with “B” and “B” is associated with “C.” Without direct teaching, the child may begin to relate “A” to “C.” For instance, if a child learns that a picture of a dog equals the word “dog” (A=B), and the word “dog” equals a spoken sound “dog” (B=C), the child may now associate the picture with the spoken word (A=C) without additional teaching.
Example 2: Relational Frame Theory (RFT)
• Explanation: Relational Frame Theory suggests that learners can generalize based on abstract relationships (e.g., same, opposite, more than, less than) among stimuli. This process enables them to derive new relations without explicit instruction.
• Example: A child who learns that “big” is the opposite of “small” can apply the concept of “opposite” to other contexts, such as recognizing that “fast” is the opposite of “slow.” By establishing this relational frame, the child can extend “opposite” relationships across different domains.
Generative Performance
Generative performance involves applying previously learned skills or rules to new situations, leading to novel and flexible responses. This concept is essential in promoting adaptive learning, where individuals use their knowledge creatively.
Example 1: Teaching Rules Rather Than Rote Responses
• Explanation: Instead of teaching isolated facts, teaching rules encourages learners to generalize their knowledge to new scenarios. By understanding the underlying rule, learners can generate appropriate responses in various contexts.
• Example: If a learner is taught that adding “s” to a word makes it plural, they can apply this rule to new words without needing direct teaching for each instance (e.g., cat -> cats, book -> books). This process encourages flexible language use as the learner applies the rule generatively to new vocabulary.
Example 2: Training in Multiple Exemplars
• Explanation: Multiple exemplar training involves teaching a concept or skill across a range of examples. This process helps learners generalize and apply what they’ve learned to new situations, as they understand the commonalities across different examples.
• Example: A teacher wants to teach a child to identify shapes. Instead of only using one example of a circle, the teacher uses various sizes, colors, and styles of circles. As a result, the child learns the concept of “circle” and can recognize it in new contexts without specific teaching for each instance.
Processes that Promote Emergent Relations and Generative Performance
1. Generalization and Maintenance Strategies: Teaching skills in varied settings, with different people, and using diverse materials promotes generalization. For example, teaching a child to identify animals across pictures, videos, toys, and real animals helps them generalize the concept of “animal.”
2. Use of Derived Relational Responding: By promoting relational learning, such as through the use of RFT or relational matching, learners can develop new connections and responses based on prior learning. For example, a child who understands “more than” in a counting context may generalize this to volume or size comparisons.
3. Incorporating Problem-Solving Training: Teaching problem-solving steps helps individuals extend skills to unfamiliar situations. For example, if a student learns to solve math problems by identifying given information, selecting a strategy, and applying it, they can use this approach with new types of math problems.
4. Promoting Creativity through Variability: Reinforcing creative responses by rewarding variability within a skill set (e.g., asking different types of questions) fosters generative performance. For instance, if a student is encouraged to ask different types of questions about a story (who, what, where, when), they learn to approach reading comprehension in diverse ways.
Summary
Promoting emergent relations and generative performance involves teaching strategies that encourage flexible thinking and adaptive responses. Using techniques like stimulus equivalence, multiple exemplar training, and problem-solving strategies helps learners derive new relationships and apply their skills to novel situations, which is essential for lifelong learning and adaptive behavior.
Here are additional examples of processes that promote emergent relations and generative performance:
Additional Examples of Emergent Relations
Example 3: Match-to-Sample Training
• Explanation: Match-to-sample training involves teaching a learner to match a sample stimulus to a corresponding stimulus, fostering understanding of relationships.
• Example: A learner is shown a card with the word “apple” and asked to match it to an image of an apple. Later, without direct teaching, they can match the word “apple” with other representations, such as a drawing or an actual apple. This understanding of matching across contexts promotes the emergence of new, untaught relations.
Example 4: Category or Class-Based Learning
• Explanation: Teaching items within a category can help learners understand that new items also belong to that category, leading to emergent responses.
• Example: A child is taught that a dog, cat, and rabbit are all animals. When later shown an unfamiliar animal, such as a tiger, the child identifies it as an animal as well. This ability to generalize based on category learning demonstrates emergent relations.
Example 5: Syntactical and Grammatical Relations in Language Learning
• Explanation: When teaching language, understanding sentence structure enables learners to apply these patterns to create new, meaningful sentences without direct instruction for each variation.
• Example: After learning “The cat is sleeping” and “The dog is barking,” a learner can produce “The cat is barking” or “The dog is sleeping,” demonstrating emergent knowledge of sentence structure through syntactical relations.
Additional Examples of Generative Performance
Example 3: Functional Communication Training (FCT) for Generative Language
• Explanation: FCT teaches learners functional phrases to meet their needs, which they can generalize to new contexts.
• Example: A learner is taught to request items by saying “I want [item].” Initially, they may only request a few specific items. Over time, they begin to apply the phrase to new, untrained items, such as “I want juice,” “I want book,” etc., without requiring separate training for each new item.
Example 4: Story Sequencing for Reading Comprehension
• Explanation: Teaching story sequencing with multiple stories promotes a learner’s ability to generalize the skill to new stories, supporting broader comprehension.
• Example: A student learns to sequence the beginning, middle, and end of several simple stories. Later, when given a new story they haven’t read before, the student can independently sequence its events, showing generative performance in reading comprehension.
Example 5: Concept Formation with Shapes in Mathematics
• Explanation: Teaching mathematical concepts with various examples helps learners apply those concepts in novel situations.
• Example: A child is taught that a triangle has three sides and that all three-sided shapes are triangles. Later, when shown a variety of shapes with three sides—whether equilateral, isosceles, or scalene—they can identify them all as triangles without specific training for each shape variation.
Processes to Encourage Emergent Relations and Generative Performance
1. Errorless Learning and Prompt Fading: Teaching with minimal errors and gradually fading prompts encourages learners to develop correct responses without over-reliance on prompts. For example, teaching a student to sound out letters in a word with fading prompts helps them generalize phonics skills to new words.
2. Analogies and Comparisons in Teaching Concepts: Using analogies promotes understanding of abstract relationships and encourages learners to make connections to novel situations. For instance, teaching gravity by comparing it to “invisible glue” on Earth helps learners apply this concept when discussing planets and space.
3. Encouraging “Why” and “How” Questions: Reinforcing curiosity by encouraging “why” and “how” questions promotes deeper understanding and exploration of new information. For example, if a child asks why the sky is blue, the teacher explains, fostering a habit of inquiry that encourages generative thinking.
4. Task Analysis with Progressive Complexity: Breaking down complex tasks into simpler steps and then encouraging learners to combine them in new ways promotes flexible skill application. For instance, teaching a child to tie their shoes by breaking down each step helps them adapt the skill to different types of shoes or laces.
Summary of Processes and Their Impact
By using diverse instructional processes such as multiple exemplar training, stimulus equivalence, relational frame theory, and analogies, we promote learners’ abilities to respond flexibly and creatively in new situations. These strategies encourage emergent relations, where new connections arise without direct teaching, and generative performance, where skills are applied in novel contexts—both critical for adaptive learning and independence.
Scenario: Promoting Emergent Relations and Generative Performance in a Classroom Setting
Client: Noah, a 9-year-old boy with developmental delays, attends a mainstream classroom with support. He receives ABA therapy to enhance his academic and social skills. Although Noah can learn individual concepts well, he often struggles to generalize skills to new situations and connect related ideas without direct instruction.
Objective: The BCBA wants to help Noah develop emergent relations and generative performance so that he can independently apply what he learns to novel contexts and engage in more flexible, adaptive thinking.
Background: In the classroom, Noah is learning about ecosystems in science. He has mastered identifying specific animals, plants, and environmental elements within a forest ecosystem but has difficulty connecting these individual components into broader categories (e.g., “predators” and “prey” or “living” and “non-living”). He also struggles to extend these concepts to other ecosystems, like the ocean or desert, where he can apply his knowledge generatively.
Decision Points for the BCBA:
1. Choosing Techniques for Teaching Emergent Relations:
• Option A: Implement stimulus equivalence to teach Noah how different elements of an ecosystem relate to each other. For example, the BCBA could teach Noah that a wolf is a predator and that rabbits are prey in the forest ecosystem. Once Noah learns that predators and prey are categories, he may be able to generalize these categories to the ocean, identifying sharks as predators and fish as prey without direct teaching.
• Option B: Use relational frame theory (RFT) to introduce broader relational concepts, such as “same,” “different,” “larger than,” and “smaller than.” The BCBA could teach Noah to relate different animals based on these qualities, helping him connect that predators are often “larger than” prey or that animals can be grouped by shared characteristics (e.g., “living” vs. “non-living”).
2. Deciding on a Method for Generative Performance:
• Option A: Use multiple exemplar training by teaching the same categories (predators and prey, living and non-living) across various ecosystems. This approach could involve presenting examples from the forest, ocean, and desert to encourage Noah to apply these categories generatively. For instance, once he understands predators and prey in multiple ecosystems, he may be able to identify predator-prey relationships in new environments, like the jungle or savannah.
• Option B: Implement a problem-solving strategy to help Noah reason through new scenarios. For example, teach him steps for identifying which animals might be predators or prey based on characteristics (e.g., size, teeth shape) so that he can apply these steps independently in unfamiliar ecosystems. This would foster generative thinking by encouraging him to use reasoning skills beyond rote memorization.
3. Incorporating Natural Reinforcement and Generalization Opportunities:
• Option A: Design activities that integrate Noah’s interests and use natural reinforcement to encourage flexible thinking. For example, if Noah loves drawing, the BCBA could create an art project where Noah draws different ecosystems, labeling predators, prey, living, and non-living elements, promoting generalization through engaging, creative activities.
• Option B: Plan generalization sessions in varied contexts, such as the school library or outdoor settings. The BCBA could encourage Noah to identify ecosystem components during a nature walk or library book hunt, promoting emergent relations and generative performance by reinforcing his ability to apply classroom concepts in real-world contexts.
Questions for the BCBA to Consider:
1. Which techniques will help Noah connect ideas most naturally? Should Noah learn through structured categories and relations (like stimulus equivalence) or more fluid concepts (like relational frames)? Which method aligns better with his learning style?
2. How can I ensure Noah’s learning extends to new settings and contexts? How can I incorporate generalization opportunities that will allow him to apply these skills outside the classroom?
3. What type of reinforcement will keep Noah engaged and motivated? How can I incorporate his interests, such as art or outdoor activities, to make the learning process enjoyable and encourage flexible thinking?
Expected Outcome:
By selecting and combining effective strategies, the BCBA can help Noah develop emergent relations between elements in ecosystems and demonstrate generative performance by applying these concepts across multiple contexts and ecosystems. Noah’s ability to connect ideas independently and think flexibly will support his continued learning in science and other subjects, helping him build a foundation for adaptive, real-world problem-solving.
B.22. Identify ways behavioral momentum can be used to understand response persistence.
Identifying ways behavioral momentum can be used to understand response persistence. Behavioral momentum theory draws an analogy between the persistence of behavior and the physical concept of momentum, helping us understand how behaviors can continue even when conditions change.
Understanding Behavioral Momentum
Behavioral momentum refers to the tendency of a behavior to persist when a change occurs in the environment, such as when reinforcement is reduced or an alternative behavior is introduced. This concept helps behavior analysts understand how to build and sustain behaviors in clients, especially in challenging or less reinforcing environments.
Just as a physical object with more momentum is harder to stop, a behavior with greater “momentum” is more resistant to disruption. This can be helpful in promoting important, socially significant behaviors and in developing interventions for challenging behaviors.
Key Concepts in Behavioral Momentum
1. High-P and Low-P Requests: High-probability (high-p) requests are those that the individual is likely to comply with due to a history of reinforcement. Low-probability (low-p) requests are those that the individual is less likely to comply with. By building up behavioral momentum through high-p requests, low-p requests are more likely to be followed.
2. Reinforcement and Persistence: When behavior is reinforced consistently, it gains momentum and becomes more persistent. Behavioral momentum helps us understand that behaviors with a strong reinforcement history are likely to persist even when faced with challenges, distractions, or decreased reinforcement.
3. Disruptions and Resistance: When behaviors have high momentum, they show resistance to changes such as removal of reinforcement or introduction of a competing behavior. For example, if a learner is accustomed to completing tasks successfully with regular praise, they are more likely to persist even when praise becomes intermittent.
Using Behavioral Momentum to Promote Response Persistence
Example 1: High-P Request Sequence
• Explanation: A high-p request sequence involves presenting several high-probability requests in quick succession, followed by a low-probability request. This builds momentum through the reinforcement of compliance with high-p requests, increasing the likelihood that the learner will respond to the low-p request.
• Application: A BCBA working with a child who struggles to follow instructions for cleaning up might first ask the child to complete several easy, high-p tasks, like giving a high-five, touching their nose, or clapping hands. After the child successfully completes these tasks, the BCBA then introduces the low-p task of putting toys away. The momentum built from the high-p tasks increases the likelihood of compliance with the cleanup task.
Example 2: Reinforcing Academic Persistence
• Explanation: In academic settings, using behavioral momentum can increase students’ persistence with challenging tasks. By reinforcing simpler academic tasks first, a teacher or BCBA can build momentum that helps the student persist with more difficult work.
• Application: A BCBA is helping a student who becomes easily frustrated with reading assignments. The BCBA begins by reinforcing the completion of shorter, easier reading tasks. Over time, the student’s persistence increases, and they are more willing to tackle longer, more challenging passages. This persistence is a result of the behavioral momentum created by the initial, consistently reinforced successes.
Example 3: Enhancing Social Skills in Group Settings
• Explanation: Behavioral momentum can encourage participation in social activities by starting with simple, reinforcing social interactions and gradually increasing complexity.
• Application: In a social skills group, a BCBA is working with a child who hesitates to interact with peers. The BCBA starts with high-p interactions, such as encouraging the child to wave or smile at peers. After reinforcing these easy interactions, the BCBA introduces more challenging interactions, like joining a conversation or participating in a group game. The momentum from the initial, simpler interactions helps the child persist and engage in more complex social behaviors.
Example 4: Promoting Task Completion in Daily Routines
• Explanation: Behavioral momentum can help individuals complete more complex routines by building momentum with smaller, manageable steps first.
• Application: A BCBA is working with a young adult learning daily living skills. To increase the likelihood of completing a multi-step morning routine, the BCBA starts with a few high-p steps that the individual already performs well, such as brushing their hair and washing their face. After these tasks are successfully completed, the BCBA introduces the next step in the routine, like making breakfast. This approach uses behavioral momentum to promote persistence in completing the full morning routine.
Using Behavioral Momentum to Address Disruptive Behavior
Example 5: Reducing Escape-Maintained Behavior
• Explanation: Behavioral momentum can help reduce escape-maintained behavior by building a sequence of high-p requests before presenting a low-p request that previously triggered escape.
• Application: A BCBA works with a student who frequently tries to leave the table during math activities. To build compliance, the BCBA first presents high-p requests, such as counting objects or identifying colors, which the student completes successfully. After these tasks, the BCBA presents the low-p math task. By building behavioral momentum, the student is more likely to persist with the math task rather than attempting to escape.
Summary
Behavioral momentum is a powerful tool for promoting response persistence. By understanding how to build momentum with high-probability requests and reinforcing behaviors consistently, BCBAs can help individuals persist with more challenging or low-probability tasks. This approach can be applied in various settings, such as academics, social interactions, daily routines, and behavior reduction. Through these strategies, behavioral momentum helps increase resilience, making it a valuable tool in applied behavior analysis.
Real-World Scenario for Implementing Behavioral Momentum to Promote Response Persistence
Client: Liam, a 6-year-old boy with autism, attends a mainstream kindergarten class with support from his BCBA. Liam often struggles with completing less preferred tasks, especially during morning routines in the classroom, such as putting away his backpack, hanging up his coat, and taking his seat. He typically avoids these tasks by engaging in escape behaviors like running to other parts of the room or dropping to the floor.
Objective: The BCBA’s goal is to use behavioral momentum to increase Liam’s compliance and persistence with the morning routine. By implementing a series of high-probability (high-p) requests, the BCBA aims to build momentum and improve Liam’s ability to complete the less preferred steps of the routine.
Steps to Implement
1. Identify High-Probability (High-P) and Low-Probability (Low-P) Tasks:
• High-P Tasks: The BCBA selects a few simple tasks that Liam is very likely to comply with, even when asked at the start of the day. Examples include giving a high-five, touching his nose, and clapping his hands.
• Low-P Task: The BCBA identifies the low-p task as completing the morning routine sequence—putting away his backpack, hanging up his coat, and sitting down at his desk.
2. Create the High-P Request Sequence:
• When Liam arrives in the classroom, the BCBA begins with a series of high-p requests, asking him to complete tasks he enjoys and can easily do.
• For example, the BCBA might say, “Liam, give me a high-five!” After he completes this, they quickly follow up with, “Touch your nose!” and then “Clap your hands!” Each of these tasks is positively reinforced with verbal praise, such as “Great job!” or “You’re doing awesome!”
3. Introduce the Low-P Task After the High-P Sequence:
• Immediately after the successful completion of the high-p tasks, the BCBA introduces the low-p request: “Okay, now let’s hang up your backpack and coat, then sit at your desk!”
• By this point, Liam has gained behavioral momentum from successfully completing the high-p requests, making him more likely to comply with the more challenging low-p request.
4. Reinforce Compliance with the Low-P Task:
• If Liam completes the low-p task, the BCBA provides reinforcement, such as verbal praise, a sticker, or a brief playtime with a preferred toy. This reinforcement helps strengthen the behavior and increase the likelihood of future compliance.
5. Fade the High-P Sequence Gradually:
• Over time, as Liam becomes more consistent in completing the morning routine, the BCBA gradually fades the high-p sequence. For example, they might start with only one high-p request before introducing the low-p task, ultimately moving to a point where Liam completes the morning routine independently.
Expected Outcome
Through the use of behavioral momentum, Liam becomes more consistent in completing his morning routine with reduced escape behaviors. The initial sequence of high-p tasks builds a pattern of compliance and success, making Liam more likely to respond positively to the more challenging low-p request. Over time, as he gains confidence and familiarity with the routine, the need for high-p tasks diminishes, and Liam can complete the routine more independently, leading to a smoother start to his school day.
Real-World Scenario for Implementing Behavioral Momentum to Increase Homework Compliance
Client: Maya, an 8-year-old girl with ADHD, has difficulty starting and completing her homework. She often avoids or delays starting her homework by engaging in off-task behaviors, such as doodling, asking to go to the bathroom, or talking about unrelated topics. Maya’s teacher and parents have noticed that once she starts working, she can usually stay on task for short periods, but initiating the task is a major barrier.
Objective: The BCBA’s goal is to use behavioral momentum to help Maya start her homework more reliably. By implementing a series of high-probability (high-p) requests before presenting the homework task (a low-probability task), the BCBA aims to increase Maya’s compliance and persistence with her homework routine.
Steps to Implement
1. Identify High-Probability (High-P) and Low-Probability (Low-P) Tasks:
• High-P Tasks: The BCBA selects a few simple and enjoyable tasks that Maya is very likely to comply with and that require minimal effort. Examples might include organizing her pencils, closing her notebook, and writing her name on the top of the homework page.
• Low-P Task: The low-p task is starting the first homework assignment, which Maya often avoids.
2. Create the High-P Request Sequence:
• Before presenting the homework task, the BCBA asks Maya to complete a series of high-p requests that she enjoys and can easily accomplish. For instance, the BCBA might say, “Maya, can you organize your pencils in a line on the desk?” After she completes this, they ask, “Can you close your notebook for me?” followed by “Can you write your name on the top of the page?”
• Each high-p task is followed by quick, positive reinforcement, like “Great job organizing those pencils!” or “Awesome! You’re ready to go!”
3. Introduce the Low-P Task After the High-P Sequence:
• Immediately after Maya completes the high-p tasks, the BCBA introduces the low-p request: “Okay, now let’s start with the first question on your homework.”
• Having built up momentum through the successful completion of the high-p tasks, Maya is now more likely to initiate the homework assignment.
4. Reinforce Compliance with the Low-P Task:
• If Maya begins the homework, the BCBA provides immediate reinforcement, such as praise (“You’re doing such a great job focusing on your homework!”) or a token toward a small reward (e.g., extra playtime or a sticker).
• If Maya completes the first question, additional praise or a brief, preferred activity break is provided, encouraging her to persist with subsequent questions.
5. Gradually Fade the High-P Sequence:
• As Maya becomes more consistent in starting her homework, the BCBA reduces the number of high-p tasks. For example, they might start with only one high-p request before presenting the homework, eventually phasing it out altogether so that Maya can start homework independently.
Expected Outcome
Through the use of behavioral momentum, Maya becomes more consistent in starting her homework with fewer delays and off-task behaviors. The high-p sequence builds a pattern of compliance and success, making her more willing to initiate the less preferred low-p task of starting her homework. Over time, as Maya becomes more accustomed to the routine and experiences reinforcement for beginning her homework, she requires fewer high-p tasks to initiate, leading to greater independence and task persistence in her homework routine.